- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The suffix -isch /ıs/ appears in a variety of adjectives (see here); a special use is in geographical adjectives such as RussischRussian, BelgischBelgian or AziatischAsian. It is a close competitor of the suffix -s, described here.
Like -s, the suffix -isch often takes inhabitant names as base, see AziëAsia > AziaatAsian person > AziatischAsian and CyprusCyprus > Cyprioot(a) Cypriot > CypriotischCypriot. Yet, the meaning of the adjectives is related to the place and not to its inhabitant: BelgischBelgian means 'from Belgium', 'belonging to Belgium' or 'associated with Belgium', not 'like a Belgian person'.
Geographical adjectives generally have a relational meaning, which implies that they are not gradable. If such an adjective is used in comparation, the meaning is coerced from relational to qualifying ('typical for X'): het meest Belgische bierthe beer most typical for Belgium. The phenomenon is illustrated here for geographical -s.
Geographical adjectives in -isch occur in a more restricted set of environments than its competitor -s. It mainly appears after non-Germanic inhabitant suffixes such as -aat, -iet or -oot(Heynderickx 1994):
Place name | Inhabitant name | Geographical adjective |
Azië | Aziaat | Aziatisch |
Jemen | Jemeniet | Jemenietisch |
Cyprus | Cyprioot | Cypriot |
Moreover, the affix appears in RussischRussian, SaksischSaxon and KoerdischKurdish, where -s might have been expected (compare Friesland > Fries(a) Frisian > FriesFrisian but RuslandRussia > Rus(a) Russian > RussischRussian).
Geographical adjectives inflect normally: they take schwa under the usual conditions (see here):
a. | een Aziat-isch eiland | ||||||||||||||
INDF Asian-N.SG island(N)SG | |||||||||||||||
a Asian island |
b. | een Aziat-ische vrouw | ||||||||||||||
INDF Asian-C.SG woman(C)SG | |||||||||||||||
a Asian woman |
c. | Aziat-ische tal-en | ||||||||||||||
Asian-PL language-PL | |||||||||||||||
Asian languages |
The geographical adjectives refer to a property connected with the place name, roughly: 'from X', 'belonging to X' or 'associated with X'. This means that the inhabitant name that often serves as the base only contributes to the form, not to the meaning of the adjective (Booij 1988). Generally speaking, all geographical adjectives are relational adjectives, which means that they express an absolute property and cannot be used in the comparative and the superlative. If a geographical adjective is used in comparation, with a modifier or with the negative prefix on-, the meaning shifts to qualifying, translatable as 'typical for X'. This process is known as coercion(Pustejovsky 1991), (Pustejovski 1995), (Jackendoff 1997), (Booij 1988), (Booij 2005). Examples are discussed here.
The suffix -isch is cohering and does not influence the stress of the base word; however stress differences between the place name and the adjective are possible due to the influence of the inhabitant suffix (Kaukasus/'kɑukasʏs/Caucasus > Kaukasiër/kɑu'kaziɛr/Caucasian > Kaukasisch/kɑu'kasıs/Caucasian).
.
Geographical adjectives ending in -isch serve as input for nominalization with the suffix -e, resulting in female inhabitant names: RussischRussian > RussischeRussian woman. -isch adjectives can be prefixed with on-, which produces a semantic change towards the reading 'untypical for X': een onaziatisch gezichtan un-Asian face.
- Booij, Geert1988Polysemie en polyfunctionaliteit bij denominale woordvormingSpektator17268-276
- Booij, Geert1988Polysemie en polyfunctionaliteit bij denominale woordvormingSpektator17268-276
- Booij, Geert2005The grammar of words. An introduction to linguistic morphologyOxford textbooks in linguisticsOxfordOxford University Press
- Heynderickx, Priscilla & Marle, Jaap van1994Over het hybride karakter van -isch: op de grens van inheems en uitheemsSpektator23229-39
- Jackendoff, Ray1997The architecture of the language facultyCambridge Mass.MIT Press
- Pustejovski, James1995The Generative LexiconMIT Press
- Pustejovsky, James1991The Generative LexiconComputational Linguistics17(4)409-441
- Dutch
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- Intonation
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Diminutive allomorphy
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Phonotactics at the word level
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- /t/-deletion before the suffix -st
[75%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- The syllabic affiliation of prevocalic glides
[75%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Consonants > Glides
- Cliticization
[75%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Nasalization
[70%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
[69%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Rhotacism
[69%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
[69%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Geographical adjectives ending in -s
[91%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes > Geographical adjectives
- -s
[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- Adjectival inflection
[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- -zaam
[78%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -(e)lijk
[77%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -sk
[79%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Geographical name as base
- -er (inhabitant names)
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Geographical name as base
- -sk
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Noun as base
- -ich
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Noun as base
- -DIM (diminutive)
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Inputs and input restrictions
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- -ies (ADJZ)
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > List of affixes
- Pseudo-participles
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Prefixation
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.3.3. Relational adjectives
[79%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification
- 5.5. Co-occurring adjectives
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 1.3.2. Deadjectival nouns
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
- 1.3.2.1. The set-denoting property
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification > 1.3.2. Set-denoting adjectives
- 1.3.1. Set-denoting, relational, and evaluative adjectives and the residue
[76%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification
- Aspectual
[71%] Frisian > Syntax > Adjective Phrases > Predication > Complementive constructions > Intransitive predication
- The intransitive postposition om 'around' as a verbal diminutive
[71%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Intransitive adpositions
- Simple APs
[71%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Modification > APs
- As prepositional complement
[71%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Modification > Relative clauses > Syntactic function
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[71%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- Mood
[75%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Attribution
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Superlative
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Modification of the superlative
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree > Superlative
- Characteristics and classification
[73%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
