- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Verbal inflection is the name for the phenomenon that verbs take different forms depending on the grammatical function they serve. Dutch verbs carry in formation for tense, number and person. Categories such as mood, aspect and evidentiality are not expressed systematically by morphological means in Dutch.
Tense is the grammatical category, expressed in forms of the verb, that locates a situation in time. In Dutch and Frisian, as well as in English, tense must be expressed in all finite verb phrases. It is marked by the choice of the first or only verb in the verb phrase: speeltplays versus heeft gespeeldhas played; heeft gespeeldhas played versus had gespeeldhad played; zal spelenwill play versus zou spelenwould play; is aan het spelenis on the playingis playing versus was aan het spelenwas on the playingwas playing. Since contrasts in number and person, where they apply, are also marked on the first or only verb, these choices combine with tense: present ik speelI play, zij speeltshe plays and wij spelenwe play versus past ik/zijI/she played and wij speeldenwe played. We/They were.
Number is a grammatical category used in describing parts of speech that show contrasts of plural, singular, dual, etc. In Dutch and Frisian, the number system is basically a two-term contrast of singular and plural, shown in nouns, verbs and some pronouns and determiners. Even dual words, such as beideboth, take singular or plural verb concord. Dutch and Frisian nouns, as far as number is concerned, can be divided into: singular only (singulare tantum), plural only (plurale tantum), and words that can be both. Dutch tensed verbs are systematically marked for number, the plural forms always ending in-en: ik loop jij loopt hij loopt wij/jullie/zij lopenI walk you walk he walks we/you/they walk,ik liep jij liep hij liep wij/jullie/zij liepenI walked you walked he walked we/you/they walked.
Person is a grammatical and semantic category applying to pronouns and verbs and used in describing the roles of people and things.
In Standard Dutch, the first-person pronouns are the speakers(s) or writer(s) together with any others included in the plural (ik, me/mij, we/wij, onsI, me, we, us). The second-person pronouns are the addressee(s) and possibly others in the plural, where je/jijyou.SGjullieyou.PL implies a greater degree of intimacy or informality than u. The third person pronouns are others being referred to (zij, haar, hij, hem, het, men, zij, hen/hunshe, her, he, him, it, one, they, them). The distinctions of person are shown not only in personal pronouns but also in reflexive pronouns (mezelf, zichmyself, himself) and possessive pronouns (mijnmy).
In Dutch verbs, person is also indicated in the verb, to a certain extent: in the present tense, there are forms for 1SG and 2SG-INV, 2SG and 3SG, and PL: ik loop, jij loopt/loop jij, hij loopt, wij/jullie/zij lopenI walk, you walk/walk you, he walks, we/you/they walk.
Mood is a term for a form of the verb that affects the general meaning of the sentence and for the sentence or clause type in which it occurs. Three moods are customarily recognized for Dutch: the indicative (God helpt onsGod helps us); the imperative (Help onsHelp us); and the subjunctive (God helpe onsGod help us). The Dutch subjunctive is obsolete and found in idioms and fixed expressions only: het zij zoit be soso be it, leve the koninginlive the queenlong live the queen, de Heer sta ons bythe Lord stand us withmay the Lord be with us.
Aspect is the grammatical category (expressed in verb forms) that refers to a way of looking at the time of a situation: for example, its duration, repetition, completion. Aspect contrasts with tense, the category that refers to the time of the situation with respect to some other time: for example, the moment of speaking or writing. There are two aspects in English: the progressive aspect ('We are eating lunch') and the perfect aspect (`We have eaten lunch') (Matthews). Although Dutch does not systematically mark aspect on verbs, the language has various ways to express aspectual issues, e.g. the perfective prefix or particle op (opeteneat vs. eteneat), progressive constructions (je zit te zeurenyou sit to nag-INFyou're nagging, je bent aan het zeurenyou are on the nag-INFyou're nagging), durative particle maar (het regent maarit rains butit keeps on raining), etc.
Voice is category that involves the relationship of subject and object in a sentence or clause. In Dutch, the contrast is between active voice and passive voice. In languages such as Latin, voice is a morphological category: next to amo, amamusI love, we love we have amor, amamurI am loved, we are loved, but in Dutch and Frisian, voice is an analytical category, affecting both the structure of the sentence and the form of the verb: Susan verplaatste het meubilairSusan moved the furniture is an active sentence whose corresponding passive is Het meubilair werd door Susan verplaatstThe furniture was moved by Susan. The active object (het meubilair) is identical with the passive subject, while the active subject is incorporated in a door-phrase (door Susan). The two sentences have the same truth value, though there are differences in style and emphasis, in that passives are usually more formal than actives and the end of a sentence or clause tends to have the greatest emphasis. The door-phrase is often omitted from the passive sentence, especially in technical writing, producing an agentless passive.
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Intonation
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Diminutive allomorphy
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Final devoicing
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- /{s/z}/-insertion between /{t/d}/ and /jə/
[86%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Verb stems (present tense stems) with and without final consonant
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- Orthography
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Breaking: phonetic aspects
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Breaking
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- The rounded and unrounded close front vowels of Afrikaans
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Homorganic glide insertion
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Nasal assimilation
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Coda
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Verbal inflection
[86%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Personal pronouns
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Possessive pronouns
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- -ing
[83%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- General categories
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Personal pronouns
[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Weak verbs
[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Conversion
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Affixation
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Prefixation
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Bound forms
[75%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[75%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.3. Inflection
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 10.1. Placement of the finite verb
[84%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 5.2.1.1. Referential personal pronouns
[84%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.2. Pronouns > 5.2.1. Personal pronouns
- 1.1.2.2. Complementive use
[84%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition > 1.1.2. Syntactic uses of adpositional phrases
- 1.2.4. Intransitive adpositions
[84%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Constructions with verbs and verb clusters
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Characteristics and classification
- The third construction
[80%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[79%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The expression of irrealis in nineteenth-century Frisian and in Modern Frisian
[79%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Mood
[86%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[84%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Inflection and derivation
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Verb Phrase Introduction
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Finite interrogative complement clauses: syntactic distribution
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite interrogative complement clauses
