- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Present participles formed with the ending -end could be transposed to adjectives. These lost their final /d/ by a general historical phonological process. Later the ending -end became restored under Dutch influence, but some lexicalized cases retained the ending -en. An example is mijeto avoid > mijendiffident. In most derivations with -en, the base form is not or hardly recognizable anymore.
A historical deletion process affected final /d/ after /n/, compare Frisian sân with English sand and Frisian wyn with English wind. For a phonological account, see the topic on word-final sequences of a nasal and an obstruent. Present participles, ending in /-end/, also suffered from this change. Due to this, one can find a few adjectives and adverbs of the form 'verb + -en', remnants of an adjectively used former present participle. Examples are given in the table below:
Base form | Derivation |
opljeppeto leap up | opljeppenhot-tempered |
hoedeto keep watch over | hoedencautious |
razeto rage | razen(d)furious |
ûntlitteto temper | ûntlitten(d)thawy |
In a later stage, the form of the ending of the present participle became restored to -end, a form which transpositions to adjectives still show. In contrast to this productive process, formations with -en are typically lexicalized, often with a non-transparent semantics. In most derivations with -en[ən], the base form is not even recognizable anymore. Examples are given below:
Derivation |
kekenchoosy |
rimpenhasty |
gystenhasty |
trintenneat |
dertenplayful |
Derivations with -en from verbs can be input for the suffixes -ens and -heid. Examples are opljeppenens / opljeppenheidshort-temperedness, from opljeppenhot-tempered.
This topic is based on Hoekstra (1998:133). More information about the suffix -en based on verbs can be found in Sytstra and Hof (1925:138-139).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Sytstra, Onno H. & Hof, Jan J1925Nieuwe Friesche SpraakkunstLeeuwardenR. van der Velde
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Final devoicing
[67%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- The spelling of linking elements in compounds
[67%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[66%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Intonation
[66%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Diminutive allomorphy
[66%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Word-final sequences of a liquid and a nasal
[71%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Two consonants
- Cliticization
[71%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[71%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Verb stems (present tense stems) with and without final consonant
[70%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- Final /d/-deletion
[70%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
- Rhotacism
[66%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- d-deletion
[66%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Nasal assimilation
[66%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Final devoicing
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- r-deletion
[65%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Adjectival inflection
[71%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- -s
[71%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -(e)loos
[71%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -ing
[70%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- on-
[69%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal prefixes
- -ich
[75%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Noun as base
- -ert
[74%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Adjective as base
- -heid, -ens and -ichheid
[74%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Adjective as base
- Number
[74%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns
- -en
[74%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Verb as base
- Pseudo-participles
[67%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[66%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Meaning of affixes
[65%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[65%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[64%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.3. Inflection
[71%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 1.3.1.4. Ge-nominalization
[71%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- 7.1.2.2. Inflected alle ''all''
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 7 Pre-determiners > 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants > 7.1.2. Distribution of al and alle inside the noun phrase
- 1.3.2. Deadjectival nouns
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
- 5.5. Co-occurring adjectives
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- The intransitive postposition om 'around' as a verbal diminutive
[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Intransitive adpositions
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Gean 'go'
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[65%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Bliuwe 'stay'
- The empty verb hinnegean 'go' selects an adjunct IPI
[65%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo > Adjunct IPI-constructions
- Mood
[69%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[68%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Attribution
[68%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Complementive constructions
[68%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Predication
- Morphological characterisation
[67%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Introduction
