- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The suffix -sum is an unproductive suffix that derives adjectives mainly from verbs (swijeto be silent > swijsumtaciturn). There are also derivations with nouns as a base (deugdvirtue > deugdsumvirtuous), with adjectives (seldenrarely > seldsumrare) as a base, and in one case the base is a numeral (ienone > iensumlonely). Sometimes, the base is not a currently existing free lexical item, for example in *muoi > muoisumdifficult.
Derivations with -sum vary semantically. The majority of these derivations are comparable in meaning to derivations with the suffixes -ber and -lik.
-sum mainly attaches to stems of verbs. An exception is betochtsumcautious, deliberate which has a past participle (the infinitive of this strong verb is betinkethink (about), consider) as its base.
Typical for the suffix -sum is the modal-causative reading in derivations like leareto learn > learsuminformative, droegjeto dry > droechsumdrying, groeieto grow > groeisumgrowing and wurkjeto work > wurksumworking.
A modal-passive reading "possible to be {verb}-ed" can be found in brûketo use > brûksumusable and sjongeto sing > sjongsumsingable. So in sjongsum ferske is a song that can be easily sung.
An active modality reading "having ability to {verb}" can be found in: strekketo extend > streksumextendable, duorjeto last > duorsumdurable, bekommeto recover > bekomsumrecoverable, rêdeto save > rêdsumpossible to save and ferfeleto be bored > ferfeelsumuncomfortable.
An necessity reading can be found in grouweto be horrified > grousumhorrible. So, grousum waar is weather one has to be horrified of.
A non-modal reading "having tendency to {verb}" can be found in skreppeto work hard > skrepsumdiligent, behelpeto manage > behelpsumhelpful, betrouweto trust > betrousumreliable and fertelleto tell > fertelsumcommunicative.
There are only a few adjectives ending in -sum that have a noun as base, mostly denoting some abstract virtue. Hence, the derived adjectives have a positive connotation. Examples are deugdvirtue > deugdsumvirtuous, earrespect > earsumrespectable, hânhand > hânsumhandy, manageable and fredepeace > freedsumpeaceful.
An adjectival base is rare. Examples are gemiencommon > gemiensumcommon, shared and seldenrarely > seldsumrare. The latter case shows truncation of -en.
The suffix -sum can also have a numeral as its base form. There is only one numeral to which it is attached: ienone, iensumlonely. Other numerals + -sum are ungrammatical: twatwo > *twasum, fjouwereight > *fjouwersum. The same holds for numeral+-lik, which can also only be added to ienone.
-sum[səm] is a non-cohering suffix and does not bear stress. However, it can influence the stress pattern of the base as it requires the main stress to be on the last stem syllable. This is relevant for particle verbs, for example in OPmerkeremark > opMERKsumremarkable.
If a base word ends in a schwa, this schwa is truncated: fredepeace > freedsumpeaceful. We see truncation of a schwa syllable -en in seldenrarely > seldsumrare.
Adjectives ending in -sum can serve as input for other words, especially nominalizations in -heid (seldsumheidrarity) and adjectives prefixed with ûn- (ûnbrûksumuseless). In some cases, only the ûn- form exists: ûnachtsumcareless but *achtsum. Verbalization is not possible, with the exception of ferûnachtsumjeto neglect and feriensumjeto grow lonely.
This topic is based on Hoekstra (1998:136).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
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[59%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
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[59%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[59%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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- -zaam
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[70%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adverbs > Adverbial suffixes
- -isch
[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[67%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes > Geographical adjectives
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[82%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Verb as base
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[80%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Noun as base
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[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adjectival suffixes > Noun as base
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[60%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[59%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[59%] Afrikaans > Morphology > List of affixes
- Dutch
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- 1.3.1.4. Circumpositions
[63%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases > 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 6.2.3. Existential quantifiers
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 6 Numerals and quantifiers > 6.2. Quantifiers
- 1.3.2. Deadjectival nouns
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
- 8.1. The categorial status of adverbs
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 1.3.1.4. Ge-nominalization
[62%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- Referentiality versus quantification
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[61%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
