- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The native suffix -te/tə/ derives nouns from adjectives. Examples are grutbig > gruttesize or stilsilent > stiltesilence. In these words the suffix is just added, but in some other words additional phonological processes may occur, like breaking (e.g. koel[ku.əl]cool > kuolte[kṷoltə]coolness) or shortening (e.g. heech[he:x]high > hichte[hɪxtə]height).
The general meaning performed by -te is something like "instance of being {adjective}". If scalar adjectives are involved, only those that represent the high value may take this suffix. If they do, the derivation with -te covers the whole scale, hence the low values too. For example, swierteweight can also be applied to light objects.
The suffix -te/tə/ performs nominalisations on an adjectival base. Examples are given below:
Base form | Derivation |
stilsilent | stiltesilence |
waarmwarm | waarmtewarmth |
grutbig | gruttesize |
heechhigh | hichtehight |
siikill | syktedisease |
romspacious | romtespace |
krapnarrow | kraptenarrowness |
droechdry | droechtedrought |
These derivations of -te mean "instance of being {adjective}". Stiltesilence, for example, means "the instance of being stilsilent", and waarmtewarmth stands for "the instance of being waarmwarm". All output forms have common gender, i.e. they take the definite article de.
The adjective leafdear is special in the sense that it has to be followed by the variant -de instead of -te: leafdelove and not *leaftelove.
Very rarely, the suffix takes a non-adjectival base. In two cases, an adverb is available: deldown > deltevalley and neinear > neitenearness. Furthermore, the indefinite numeral mannichmany may stand at the basis of the noun mannichtequantity.
It may seem that a verb is also used as a base, as in beloftepromise (< beloveto promise), bertebirth (< bernjeto be born) or jeftegift (< jaanto give). However, this suffix -t(e) is different from the one treated in this topic. More information about verbs nominalized by -t(e) can be found in the topic on -t.
A semantic input restriction can be observed with objective and measurable nouns with the meaning "extent of being {adjective}" . Compare the first and second column of the following table:
Adjective > noun | Antonym adjective > noun |
grutbig > gruttesize | lytssmall > *lytstesmallness |
swierheavy > swierteweight | lichtlight > *lichttelightness |
breedwide > breedtewidth | smeltight > *smeltetightness |
langlong > lingtelength | koartshort > *koartteshortness |
Dyk (1989:34-35) explains why the suffixation by means of -te is only possible for the adjectives in the first column: they are unmarked/neutral. Compare the following sentences:
a. | Syn tún is tsien fjouwerkante meter grut | ||||||||||||||
his garden is ten square meter big | |||||||||||||||
His garden is ten square meters big |
b. | Syn tún is tsien fjouwerkante meter lyts | ||||||||||||||
his garden is ten square meter small | |||||||||||||||
His garden is ten square meters small |
a. | De poppe wie acht pûn swier | ||||||||||||||
the baby was eight pounds heavy | |||||||||||||||
The baby weighed eight pounds |
b. | De poppe wie acht pûn licht | ||||||||||||||
the baby was eight pounds light | |||||||||||||||
The baby weighed eight pounds |
a. | De latte wie fyftjin sintimeter breed | ||||||||||||||
the stave was fifteen centimeter wide | |||||||||||||||
The stave was fifteen centimeters wide |
b. | De latte wie fyftjin sintimeter smel | ||||||||||||||
the stave was fifteen centimeter narrow | |||||||||||||||
The stave was fifteen centimeters narrow |
a. | It nije Akademygebou is tritich meter lang | ||||||||||||||
the new academy-building is thirty meters long | |||||||||||||||
The new Academy building is thirty meters long |
b. | It nije Akademygebou is tritich meter koart | ||||||||||||||
the new academy-building is thirty meters short | |||||||||||||||
The new Academy building is thirty meters short |
In the (a)-sentences the "high" measure-adjectives have been used and in the (b)-examples the "low" ones. In the first group the speaker does not evaluate the size, but in the second group he does. To illustrate: in (4a) the speaker does not appraise the size of the building, while in example (4b) he explicitly indicates that according to him the building is rather small.
There are some cases in which -te is possible with the "low" antonyms:
Adjective > noun | Antonym adjective > noun |
djipdeep > djiptedepth | ûndjipshallow > ûndjipteshoal |
wiidwide > wiidtewidth | ingnarrow > ingtenarrowness |
However, according to Dyk (1989:35) these examples do not denote the extent of being ûndjipshallow or ingnarrow, but rather the concrete situation of being ûndjipshallow or ingnarrow. Thus ûndjipteshoal refers to a concrete shallow place in the water, and an ingtenarrowness is a concrete narrow passage.
Conversely, there are also measure adjectives that do not allow -te at all. Examples are letlate > *lettetime and âldold > *âldteage. Conceivably, these are blocked since the competing words tiidtime and âldensage are available.
More information about the relationship between measure adjectives and -te can be found in Dyk (1989).
Suffixation normally occurs by just adding -te: grutbig > gruttesize or stilsilent > stiltesilence. However, some words undergo an extra phonological shift. The vowel of the base form can undergo:
- Breaking, for instance koel[ku.əl]cool > kuolte[kṷoltə]coolness and swier[svi.ər]heavy > swierte[svɪtə]weight;
- Shortening in heech[he:x]high > hichte[hɪxtə]hight;
- other vowel changes: lang[laŋ]long > lingte[lɪŋtə]length.
Possible nominalisations | Adjective's penultimate consonant | Impossible nominalisations | Adjective's penultimate consonant |
kalmserene > kalmtesereneness | /l/ | lytssmall > *lytstesmallness | /t/ |
waarmwarm > waarmtewarmth | /r/ | ljochtlight > *ljochttelightness | /x/ |
skerpsharp > skerptesharpness | /r/ | absintabsent > *absintteabsence | /n/ |
frjemdforeign > frjemdteabroad | /m/ | abstraktabstract > abstrakteabstractness | /k/ |
Note that an adjective like lytssmall is also an unsuitable input because of the semantic restriction: it represents the "low part" of a scale.
The suffix -te can follow both stressed and unstressed syllables. Examples are DJIPtedepth and hoeMANnichtequantity. The suffix does not change the stress pattern.
Pluralisation depends on semantic properties of the derived noun. For instance, if djiptedepth means something abstract like "measure of deepness", then pluralisation is impossible. If the derivation is a concrete count noun, then a plural suffix may be added freely. Thus djiptendepths and ûndjiptenshoals are deep and shallow places in the water.
In Frisian, the plural form with -en is preferred where Dutch rather chooses the plural suffix -s. Compare for instance Frisian syktenillnesses with Dutch ziektes. The newly formed nouns do not allow diminutives: *kalmtekesereneness-DIMsmall serenity or *djiptekedepth-DIMsmall depth, but they can be part of a compound: syktefersomsickness absence or djiptemjitterdepth gauge.
This topic is primarily based on Hoekstra (1998:113-114). The peculiarities of adjectival bases involved in a scale have been studied by Dyk (1989). For a historical and comparative view, see Schmidt-Jüngst (2012).
- Dyk, Siebren1989It deadjektivyske efterheaksel -te op 'e nij besjoenFrysk en Vrije Universiteit (1949-1989)VU Uitgeverij
- Dyk, Siebren1989It deadjektivyske efterheaksel -te op 'e nij besjoenFrysk en Vrije Universiteit (1949-1989)VU Uitgeverij
- Dyk, Siebren1989It deadjektivyske efterheaksel -te op 'e nij besjoenFrysk en Vrije Universiteit (1949-1989)VU Uitgeverij
- Dyk, Siebren1989It deadjektivyske efterheaksel -te op 'e nij besjoenFrysk en Vrije Universiteit (1949-1989)VU Uitgeverij
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Schmidt-Jüngst, Miriam2012Die Freuden von leafde und Wäermt. Produktivität und Verbreitung des Suffixes -de/-t(e) im Deutschen, Luxemburgischen und Westfriesischen
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[84%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Diminutive allomorphy
[83%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[83%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Abstract phonological forms in Dutch orthography
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Phonotactics at the word level
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[87%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Orthography
[86%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Breaking: phonetic aspects
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Breaking
- The syllabic affiliation of prevocalic glides
[84%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Consonants > Glides
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[82%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Nasalization
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Length variation of low back vowels a aa
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- -ing
[86%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ig
[86%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Adjectival inflection
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- -erig
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -DIM (diminutive)
[89%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- -s
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Adverbial suffixes > Noun as base
- In prenominal position
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Weak verbs
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Degree
[87%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Affixation
[80%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Prefixation
[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[78%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Meaning of affixes
[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification > 1.3.2. Set-denoting adjectives
- 1.3. Inflection
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
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[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 2.2.1. Tests for distinguishing PP-complements from PP-adjuncts
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification > 3.3. Postmodification
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[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
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[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
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[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Modification > APs
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[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
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[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Mood
[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
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[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
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[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite interrogative complement clauses
- Attribution
[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
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[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
