- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The suffix -en is one of the two infinitival suffixes in Frisian. One of its functions is to transpose verbs into nouns. An example is skriuweto write > skriuwenwriting. An interesting difference from Dutch is the fact that not only pure action nouns are derived, but that in some cases these can be individualized. Examples are lêzeto read > lêzensomething to read or trouweto marry > trouwenmarriage. All these nouns have neuter gender and do not allow plurals.
Frisian has two infinitives, one ending in -e and and the other ending in -en. In the part on verbal inflection these are dubbed infinitive I and infinitive II. The infinitives obey a strict distribution, depending on syntactic context, as is described in the section infinitive of the topic on general categories of verbal inflection. Monosyllabic verbs like sjento see or geanto go are the exception: their infinitive invariably ends in -n. For monosyllabic verbs, see strong inflection - monosyllabic verbs.
If a verb is transposed to a noun, which in the unmarked case is an action noun, it always has the ending -en. The gender of the noun is neuter, as can be detected from the selection of the neuter definite article it or the neuter demonstrative pronoun dat. Hence, we have it rinnenthe walking or dat ridenthat skating. As can be seen from these examples, the occurrence of -en is independent of the existence of the two weak inflectional classes in Frisian: it can be attached to verbs that have their infinitive I ending in -e and in -je alike. The nominalized infinitive can occur in various syntactic configurations; see complementation of infinitival Noun Phrases (NPs) for an impression.
A difference from Dutch is the fact that Frisian shows more semantic specialization in these nominal infinitives. Possibly, this is an effect of the circumstance that the language has this special infinitive -en for nominal contexts, and/or this suffix is used quite frequently for such contexts, at the cost of other suffixes, like -ing. To illustrate this, Frisian and Dutch are put side by side in this section. The first examples are:
a. | Sy hat yn har trouwen net folle wille hân |
she has in her marrying not much fun had | |
She has not had much fun during her marriage | |
Frisian |
a.' | Zij heeft tijdens haar huwelijk niet veel lol gehad |
she has while her marriage not much fun had | |
She has not had much fun during her marriage | |
Dutch |
a. | Der wie fan 'e moarn dopen yn tsjerke |
there was this morning baptising in church | |
They baptised this morning during the church service | |
Frisian |
a.' | Er werden vanochtend in de kerk kinderen gedoopt |
there were this morning in the church children baptised | |
This morning children were baptised in the church | |
Dutch |
In the corresponding examples, Dutch rather uses a noun or a different verbal description.
Frisian also allows for the nominalisations dwaandoing, sizzensaying and kommencoming, while in Dutch a different expression has to be used. Examples are:
a. | Sok dwaan mei ik net oer |
such doing may I not over | |
I do not like this kind of behaviour | |
Frisian |
a.' | Van zulk gedrag houd ik niet |
of such behaviour love I not | |
I do not like this kind of behaviour | |
Dutch |
a. | Syn sizzen wie dat de ierde plat wie |
his saying was that the earth flat was | |
He said that the earth was flat | |
Frisian |
a.' | Hij zei dat de aarde plat was |
he said that the earth flat was | |
He said that the earth was flat | |
Dutch |
a. | Har kommen joech in soad trelit |
her coming caused a lot of commotion | |
Her appearance caused a lot of commotion | |
Frisian |
a.' | Haar komst bracht veel tumult met zich mee |
her coming brought much commotion with its with | |
Her appearance caused a lot of commotion | |
Dutch |
Furthermore, in a number of cases the suffix -en can be used to form object nouns. The most important are:
Infinitive I | Infinitive II as object noun |
iteto eat | itenfood |
drinketo drink | drinkendrink(s) |
frettento feed | frettenfodder |
struieto scatter | struienlitter |
lêzeto read | lêzenreading matter |
naaieto sew | naaienneedlework |
breidzjeto knit | breidzjenknitting |
striketo iron | strikenclothes for ironing; ironed clothes |
ôfwaskjeto wash the dishes | ôfwaskjendishes |
In such cases, Dutch usually takes recourse to the usual instruments of word formation, like compounding or conversion:
a. | Hast wol wat lêzen mei foar ûnderweis? | ||||||||||||||
[Frisian] | |||||||||||||||
have.you well what reading with for on.the.way | |||||||||||||||
Have you brought something to read for on the way? |
b. | Heb je wel wat leesvoer mee voor onderweg? | ||||||||||||||
[Dutch] | |||||||||||||||
have you well what reading-matter with for on.the.way | |||||||||||||||
Have you brought something to read for on the way? |
a. | Der stie fan in wike ôfwaskjen op it oanrjocht | ||||||||||||||
[Frisian] | |||||||||||||||
there stood of a week dish-washing on the sink | |||||||||||||||
There were dirty dishes of one week on the sink |
b. | Er stond afwas van een week op het aanrecht | ||||||||||||||
[Dutch] | |||||||||||||||
there stood dish-washing of a week on the sink | |||||||||||||||
There were dirty dishes of one week on the sink |
Finally, Frisian nominal infinitives with -en may be used in a construction with the preposition opon:
a. | op besjen | ||||||||||||||
on looking | |||||||||||||||
for your perusal |
b. | op prebearjen | ||||||||||||||
on trying | |||||||||||||||
on trial |
c. | op ôfbeteljen | ||||||||||||||
on part-paying | |||||||||||||||
on hire purchase |
Again, Dutch uses full nouns here, as in op zichtfor your perusal or op afbetalingon hire purchase.
The suffix is basically pronounced as [ən]. Mostly, however, /n/ becomes syllabic, after deletion of the schwa (more information in syllabic sonorant consonants). As the suffix is pronounced with a schwa, it bears no stress, and suffixation with -en does not alter the stress pattern of the base.
Nouns in -en do not allow a plural: skriuwenwriting > *skriuwenswriting-PL). An exception is the lexicalized form oantinkensouvenir > oantinkenssouvenirs. Nor can the derivations constitute the first part of a compound: ôfbeteljenpart-paying > *ôfbeteljensysteempart-paying-systemhire purchase system. However, lexicalized exceptions exist, as in frisdrinkensflessesoft-drink-LINK-bottlesoft drink bottle, with a linking element -s-.
There is another notable exception to the rule that these nouns cannot be the first part of a compound. This concerns the idiomatic construction der is gjin ....sein oanthere is no ...-LINK-end onthere's no end to ..., where -s- is a linking element. An example is this:
Der is gjin trochkommensein oan |
there is no through.coming-LINK-end on |
It is impossible to get through |
According to Hoekstra (1998:116) this construction is possibly a contamination of der is gjin .... oanthere is no....on, with a nominal infinitive, and der is gjin ein oanthere is no end on, with the noun einend.
The main source for this topic is Hoekstra (1998:116-117). The author claims in Hoekstra (1990:282-283) that the suffix -en effects a sheer transposition to a noun.
The main source for this topic is Hoekstra (1998:116-117). The author claims in Hoekstra (1990:282-283) that the suffix -en effects a sheer transposition to a noun.
- Hoekstra, Jarich1990Adjectiefnominalisatie in het FriesInterdisciplinair Tijdschrift voor Taal- en tekstwetenschap9273-285
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- The spelling of linking elements in compounds
[84%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Intonation
[83%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[83%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Phonotactics at the word level
[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Stem allomorphy
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Orthography
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- /t/-deletion before the suffix -st
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Cliticization
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Rhotacism
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Nasalization
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- d-deletion
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Homorganic glide insertion
[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Case - the partitive construction
[86%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- -ing
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Adjectival inflection
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Case in the tot-INFINITIVE-s toe construction
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Conversion
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- In prenominal position
[90%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Ellipsis
[90%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- -DIM (diminutive)
[90%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Cardinal numbers
[90%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- General categories
[89%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Inputs and input restrictions
[80%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Meaning of affixes
[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Non-native affixes
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Prefixation
[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
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- Afrikaans
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 2.2.1. Tests for distinguishing PP-complements from PP-adjuncts
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 1.3.2. Deadjectival nouns
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
- 2.2.3.1. Agentive er-nominalizations
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.3. Deverbal nouns
- 5.1.2.1. Proper nouns
[86%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.1. Articles > 5.1.2. Noun phrases without an article
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Combining with to-infinitives
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- No NP-complements
[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Complementation > Postpositions + simple complements > No complements to postpositions
- The intransitive postposition om 'around' as a verbal diminutive
[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Intransitive adpositions
- Mood
[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Attribution
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Inflection and derivation
[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Middle formation
[82%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument
