- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Onsets are optional syllableconstituents in Dutch.
Any syllable in Dutch can be onsetless regardless of the quality of the full vowel in the nucleus position and the syllable's position within a word. Examples of word-initial and word-internal onsetless syllables are given in (1) to (5).
Word-initial onsetless syllables | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | A-class vowel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
iets | /its/ | something | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
uur | /yr/ | hour | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
eend | /end/ | duck | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
aap | /ap/ | monkey | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oor | /or/ | ear | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oer | /ur/ | primal, extremely | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | B-class vowel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
inkt | /ɪŋkt/ | ink | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
urn | /ʏrn/ | urn | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
eng | /ɛŋ/ | grisly, narrow | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
os | /ɔs/ | ox | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
as | /ɑs/ | ash | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | diphthong | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
eind | /ɛind/ | end | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
uil | /œyl/ | owl | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
oud | /ɑud/ | old |
Schwa is the only vowel that is prohibited word-initially, at least in lexical morphemes (2a). Only in function words, can schwa appear in word-initial position (2b):
a. | enorm | [eˈnɔrm] | but not | [*əˈnɔrm] | enormous |
b. | een | [ən] | a |
As shown in example (1), Dutch words can start with any full vowel or diphthong – yet, as noted in Gussenhoven (1992:45), word-initial vowels are obligatorily preceded by a glottal stop if the initial syllable is stressed, while this glottal stop is optional in words in which the first syllable is unstressed. Some examples are provided in (3):
a. | Initial A-class vowel, stressed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
opera | [ˈʔopəra] | opera |
b. | Initial A-class vowel, unstressed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
enorm | [(ʔ)eˈnɔrm] | enormous |
c. | Initial B-class vowel, stressed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
acht | [ˈʔɑxt] | eight |
d. | Initial B-class vowel, unstressed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
amandel | [(ʔ)ɑˈmɑndəl] | almond |
e. | Initial diphthong, stressed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
auto | [ˈʔɑuto] | car |
f. | Initial diphthong, unstressed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
auditie | [(ʔ)ɑuˈditsi] | audition |
Word-medially, vowel-initial syllables are less frequent due to the Maximal Onset constraint (universal *C.VC constraint), which forces consonants before a vowel within the same domain of syllabification to be assigned to the onset of that particular syllable. This process is illustrated by the plural form handenhand-en[ˈhɑndən] (cf. the singular form hand/hɑnd/[hɑnt] in which syllable-final obstruent devoicing applies). In case a word-medial vowel-initial syllable occurs, it will be realized with a glottal stop if the vowel-initial syllable is stressed (4a) and without it if the vowel-initial syllable is unstressed (second syllable in 4b).
a. | vereisen | /vər.ɛi.sə(n)/ | [vərˈʔɛisə(n)] | require |
b. | eindexamen | /ɛind.ɛk.sa.mə(n)/ | [ˈʔɛintɛkˌsamə(n)] | final exams |
Sequences of two adjacent heterosyllabic vowels such as the ones in (5) are exceptions. These sequences are usually subject to the process of hiatus resolution.
Word-medial onsetless syllables leading to hiatus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hiaat | [hi.ˈat] | hiatus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
uien | [ˈœy.ən] | onions | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
chaos | [ˈxa.ɔs] | chaos | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
aorta | [a.ˈɔr.ta] | aorta | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
farao | [ˈfa.ra.o] | Pharaoh |
- Gussenhoven, Carlos1992DutchJournal of the International Phonetic Association2245-47
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Phonotactics at the word level
[80%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Onset: sequences of two consonants
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics > Syllable level > Onsets > Complex onsets
- The spelling of vowels
[78%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Pansyllabic constraints
[77%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics > Syllable level
- Schwa deletion as a synchronic process: how to deal with lapses
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
- Repairing the outcome of vowel reduction
[79%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel reduction introduction
- The dorsal obstruents
[78%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Consonants
- Breaking: phonetic aspects
[78%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Breaking
- /t/-deletion before the suffix -st
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- d-deletion
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Nasal assimilation
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- The short vowels
[76%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics > The vowel system of Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Adjectival inflection
[74%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Case - the partitive construction
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Possessive pronouns
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -ing
[73%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- In prenominal position
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Cardinal numbers
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- Interrogative pronouns
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Ellipsis
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- ûn-
[75%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Prefixation > Adjectival prefixes > Adjective as base
- Nominalisation – Person names
[69%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[68%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Bound forms
[67%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[66%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Circumfixation
[65%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.3. Inflection
[78%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 5.1.1. The inflectional paradigm
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase > 5.1. Inflection
- 5.4. N-ellipsis
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 3.1.2. Modification by an intensifier
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification > 3.1. Modification of scalar adjectives
- 6.1.1.1. Simple and compound forms
[77%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 6 Numerals and quantifiers > 6.1. Numerals > 6.1.1. Cardinal numerals
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[73%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The third construction
[72%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > To-infinitival clauses > Verbal to-infinitives
- Referentiality versus quantification
[72%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > Linearity and referentiality
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[71%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Restriction to main clauses
[70%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > Main and embedded clauses
- Attribution
[78%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Constructions with APs
[77%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Characteristics and classification
- Mood
[76%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Root modality
[75%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
- Inflection and derivation
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
