- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
The superlative Adjective Phrase (AP) is preceded by a definite article when it is used in a predicative or adverbial construction. The article's distribution differs depending on the construction in which it is used.
The superlative is accompanied by a definite article when it is used in a predicative or adverbial position. In older Frisian, the superlative could be found without an accompanying article. In adverbial position, the article is neuter gender and the schwa of the superlative is optional, as shown in the examples below:
a. | Atsje draaft it hurdste / it hurdst | ||||||||||||||
Atsje runs the.NG fastest | |||||||||||||||
Atsje runs fastest |
b. | *Atsje draaft de hurdste / de hurdst | ||||||||||||||
Atsje runs the.CG fastest | |||||||||||||||
Atsje runs fastest |
The article cannot be omitted in adverbial position:
*Atsje draaft hurdst |
Atsje runs fastest |
Atsje runs the fastest |
However, irregular superlatives, which are necessarily frequent and which seem to have undergone some meaning specialisation, may occur without article, as the examples below show:
a. | Ik bliuw (it) leafst so | ||||||||||||||
I stay the dearest at.home | |||||||||||||||
I like staying at home best |
b. | Hja praat meast oer harsels | ||||||||||||||
she talks mostly about herself | |||||||||||||||
She talks mostly about herself |
c. | Rintsje wie earst | ||||||||||||||
Rintsje was first | |||||||||||||||
Rintsje was first |
The last example involves the form earstfirst, which is both the superlative of ierearly and the ordinal form of the numeral ienone. Ordinals can generally occur without the article:
Rintsje wie twad |
Rintsje was second |
Rintsje was second |
The examples below shot that, in predicative position the article may be neuter gender or common gender:
a. | Maribel is it moaiste | ||||||||||||||
Maribel is the.NG beautiful.SUP | |||||||||||||||
Maribel is the most beautiful |
b. | Maribel is de moaiste | ||||||||||||||
Maribel is the.CG beautiful.SUP | |||||||||||||||
Maribel is the most beautiful |
The article cannot be omitted in predicative position:
*Maribel is moaist / moaiste |
Maribel is beautiful.SUP |
Maribel is the most beautiful |
If the article is common gender, then the schwa of the superlative is obligatory. This is shown in the examples below:
a. | Maribel is de moaiste | ||||||||||||||
Maribel is the.CG beautiful.SUP | |||||||||||||||
Maribel is the most beautiful |
b. | *Maribel is de moaist | ||||||||||||||
Maribel is the.CG beautiful.SUP | |||||||||||||||
Maribel is the most beautiful |
This probably indicates that the superlative has been nominalized. However, with ordinary adjectives, neuter nominalisations also require the schwa to be present:
a. | De moaie | ||||||||||||||
the.CG beautiful | |||||||||||||||
The beautiful one |
b. | It moaie | ||||||||||||||
the.NG beautiful | |||||||||||||||
The beautiful, beauty |
In attributive position, a bare superlative is not accompanied by an article. However, the noun is itself accompanied by its own definite article, in case a superlative is attributed to it. This is shown in the following examples:
a. | De moaiste frou | ||||||||||||||
the.CG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The most beautiful woman |
b. | It moaiste frommes | ||||||||||||||
the.NG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The most beautiful woman |
c. | *De it moaiste frou | ||||||||||||||
the.CG the.NG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The most beautiful woman |
d. | *It de moaiste frommes | ||||||||||||||
the the.CG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The most beautiful woman |
If the superlative is expanded, it is possible in spoken language to repeat the definite article:
a. | ?De yn alle wedstriden de moaiste frou | ||||||||||||||
the.CG in all contests the.CG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The woman who is the most beautiful in all contests |
b. | *De yn alle wedstriden it moaiste frou | ||||||||||||||
the.CG in all contests the.NG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The woman who is the most beautiful in all contests |
c. | ?It yn alle wedstriden it moaiste frommes | ||||||||||||||
the.NG in all contests the.CG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The woman who is the most beautiful in all contests |
d. | *It yn alle wedstriden de moaiste frommes | ||||||||||||||
the.NG in all contests the.NG most.beautiful woman | |||||||||||||||
The woman who is the most beautiful in all contests |
In addition, it must be noted that if two articles are adjacent, the second one is dropped. Recall that neuter superlatives take the neuter article. This article may be dropped, and usually is dropped in spoken language, when it follows the article of a noun, regardless of the gender of the noun's article:
a. | De [(it) glêdst strutsen] broek | ||||||||||||||
the.CG the.NG smoothest ironed trouserss | |||||||||||||||
The trousers that were ironed the smoothest |
b. | It [(it) glêdst strutsen] broekje | ||||||||||||||
the.NG the.NG smoothest ironed trouserss.DIM | |||||||||||||||
The briefs that were ironed the smoothest |
If the two are not adjacent, then the article of the neuter superlative must be present:
a. | De [troch Rintsje it glêdst strutsen] broek | ||||||||||||||
the by Rintsje the.NG smoothest ironed trouserss.CG | |||||||||||||||
The trousers that were ironed the smoothest by Rintsje |
b. | ?De [troch Rintsje glêdst strutsen] broek | ||||||||||||||
the by Rintsje smoothest ironed trouserss.CG | |||||||||||||||
The trousers that were ironed the smoothest by Rintsje |
More details can be found in Hoekstra (1989) and Hoekstra (1989).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1989Om it heechste (I)Friesch Dagblad23-09 Taalsnipels 122
- Hoekstra, Jarich1989Om it heechste (II)Friesch Dagblad07-10Taalsnipels 123
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[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[73%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
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[79%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
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[85%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.1. Articles > 5.1.2. Noun phrases without an article
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[84%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
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