- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Some nouns may be used as pronouns of address. An example is given below:
Dokter, dokter, wol dokter efkes meikomme? |
doctor doctor wants doctor DcP along.come |
Doctor, doctor, could you come along, please? |
Here the first two instances of the noun are vocatives. The third instance shows that the noun is used as a third person pronoun of address.
Noun to pronoun conversion characteristically occurs with nouns denoting a unique profession which has social status. More nouns of this kind are masterteacher, dûmnyparson, notarisnotary, kastleininn keeper. Such professions are relatively unique; a village tends to have one teacher, one doctor, and so on. More specifically, if you are in a class, there is only one teacher. If you are in a church, there is only one parson, and so on. Nouns denoting family relations, referred to as kinship terms, may also be used in this way, as is shown by the example below:
Moarn mem. Hat mem al iten? |
good.morning mother have mother yet eat |
Good morning, mother. Have you already had breakfast? |
More nouns allowing this are heitfather, pakegranddad, beppegrandmother, omkeuncle, muoike or tanteaunt. Professional nouns and family nouns can also be used in the vocative. The nouns, when used as pronouns of address, seem to have lost their character as R-expressions:
a. | Pake, hat pake juster pake syn fyts noch makke? | ||||||||||||||
granddad did granddad yesterday granddad his bike DcP make | |||||||||||||||
Grandfather, did you repair your bicycle yesterday? |
b. | Wit pake ek wat se krekt tsjin pake sein ha? | ||||||||||||||
knows granddad DcP what they precisely against granddad said have | |||||||||||||||
Granddad, do you remember what they told you exactly? |
However, they cannot function as lexical anaphors, whereas ordinary pronouns can:
a. | Wol pake him ek waskje? | ||||||||||||||
wants granddad him DcP wash | |||||||||||||||
Granddad, do you want to wash yourself? |
b. | *Wol pake pake ek waskje? | ||||||||||||||
wants granddad him DcP wash | |||||||||||||||
Granddad, do you want to wash yourself? |
Furthermore, it seems that they cannot be bound by pronouns (whereas ordinarily pronouns can be bound by pronouns), for the subject pronoun cannot be construed as referring to the same person as pakegrandfather:
a. | *Pake, hat hy juster pake syn fyts noch makke? | ||||||||||||||
granddad did he yesterday granddad his bike DcP make | |||||||||||||||
Grandfather, did you repair your bicycle yesterday? |
b. | *Wit hy ek wat se krekt tsjin pake sein ha? | ||||||||||||||
knows he DcP what they precisely against granddad said have | |||||||||||||||
Granddad, do you remember what they told you exactly? |
In this respect, they are similar to epithets like dy gekthat fool. However, epithets cannot be bound, whereas nouns of address can (as we saw):
a. | Pake, hat pake juster pake syn fyts noch makke? | ||||||||||||||
granddad has granddad yesterday granddad his bike DcP make | |||||||||||||||
Grandfather, did you repair your bicycle yesterday? |
b. | *Hat dy gek juster dy gek syn fyts noch makke? | ||||||||||||||
has that fool yesterday that fool his bike DcP make | |||||||||||||||
Did that fool repair his bicycle yesterday? |
So, the two instances of pakegranddad can refer to the same person, whereas the two instances of dy gekthat fool cannot.
- Dutch
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[63%] Dutch > Phonology > Clitics
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[62%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
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[62%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
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[62%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[61%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface
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[67%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
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[65%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Two consonants
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[65%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
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[65%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy
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[64%] Frisian > Phonology > Allomorphy > Clitic allomorphs
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[62%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[61%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Phonology-morphology interface
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[61%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
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[61%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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- Dutch
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- Demonstrative pronouns
[69%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Case - the possessive construction
[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
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[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
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[67%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
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[67%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Indefinite pronouns
[71%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- -er
[71%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Verb as base
- Demonstrative pronouns
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[69%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
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[67%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
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[65%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[64%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[63%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[62%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
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[62%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
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- 1.2.2.2. Abstract nouns
[74%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.2. Classification > 1.2.1. Proper nouns
- 1.2.2.1. Concrete nouns
[74%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.2. Classification > 1.2.1. Proper nouns
- 4.1.1.1. Types of N1s and N2s
[72%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions > 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition > 4.1.1. Quantificational constructions: een paar boeken 'a couple of books'
- 1.2.1. Proper nouns
[71%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.2. Classification
- 1.3.2. Deadjectival nouns
[71%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
- The vocative function
[70%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Articles and names
- Measure nouns of high quantity
[65%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Partitive noun constructions > Partitive measure nouns > Three types
- Measure nouns of low quantity
[64%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Partitive noun constructions > Partitive measure nouns > Three types
- The complementiser dat 'that' as a marker of syntactic coordination
[64%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > UCV2s
- Unspecific or arbitrary 3SG pronoun
[64%] Frisian > Syntax > Nouns & Noun Phrases > Pronouns > Strong and weak pronouns
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[69%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
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[67%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
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[65%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
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[64%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument > Passivisation
- Root modality
[64%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
