- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Apart from long and short monophthongs, Frisian has diphthongs, tautomorphemic sequences of two (different) monophthongs. Besides that, a stem can also contain sequences of three or four vowels. This section provides overviews of both kinds of vocalic sequences.
Apart from long and short monophthongs, Frisian allows for combinations of monophthongs in one and the same morpheme. A diphthong, for example, is a combination of two different tautomorphemic vowels, which end up as the nucleus of a syllable. The phonetic implementation of such a sequence is a tautosyllabic unit of two vowels, between which there is a smooth articulatory transition. The Frisian diphthongs are shown in (1).
The Frisian diphthongs | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Falling diphthongs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/aj/ | rein | rain | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ɛj/ | nij | new | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ʌɥ/ | buis | tube | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ɔw/ | blau | blue | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/oj/ | floite | whistle | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Centring diphthongs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/iə/ | stien | stone | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/yə/ | flues | membrane | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/uə/ | koel | cool | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ɪə/ | beam | tree | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/øə/ | freon | friend | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/oə/ | koal | cabbage | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Rising diphthongs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ja/ | ljacht | light | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jɛ/ | frjemd | strange | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jɔ/ | ljocht | light | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jɪ/ | ljisk | groin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jø/ | pjuts | prick | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jo/ | rjocht | right | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jy/ | njúnt(sje) | to hum | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ju/ | stjûne | stem | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wa/ | kloarkje | to suck | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wɛ/ | swel | swallow | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wɪ/ | twirre | whirl | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wø/ | swurd | sword | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wo/ | luorkje | to suck | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wi/ | dwyl | dizzy |
The close vowels (vocoids) /i/, /y/, and /u/ are assumed to underlie the glides [j], [ɥ], and [w]. This is in line with Booij (1995:8-9), who specifies the Dutch glide /j/ as "a palatal vocoid, with the same phonetic properties as the [i] except that it occurs in consonantal positions in the syllable; it has a shorter duration than the [i]". For the sake of convenience and exposition, however, the glides are transcribed as /j/, /ɥ/, and /w/ throughout, also in underlying representations.
A stem can also contain sequences of three or four vowels, which are made up of a glide and a long vowel or diphthong. This is shown in (2):
Sequences of three or four vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | Rising diphthong + glide | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/woj/ | muoike | aunt | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/waj/ | moaist | most beautiful | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | Long vowel + glide | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/u:j/ | bloei | blossom | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/o:j/ | roai | alignment | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/a:j/ | aai | egg | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/i:w/ | ieu | century; age | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. | Glide + long vowel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ju:/ | stjûne | stem, stern | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jo:/ | skriuw(e) | to write | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ja:/ | ja | yes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wi:/ | swiid | superb | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/we:/ | dwep(e) | to gush | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wa:/ | twa | two | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
d. | Glide + falling diphthong | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jɔw/ | fjouwer | four | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/jʌɥ/ | oan'e jui wêze | to whirl | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wɛj/ | swij(e) | to keep silent | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
e. | Glide + centring diphthong | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wiə/ | swiet | sweet | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/juə/ | tsjoen | enchantment | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wɪə/ | kwea | evil; harm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/joə/ | tsjoar | tether | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
f. | Glide + long vowel + glide | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ja:j/ | jaai(e) | to scud | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/ju:j/ | joei(e) | to frolic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
/wa:j/ | swaai(e) | to wave |
See the following topics:
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[76%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Phonotactics at the word level
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- The spelling of vowels
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Stem allomorphy
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Long and short monophthongs: a different view
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowels > Long vs. short monophthongs
- The glides
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Consonants
- Word-final short vowels
[81%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonotactics > Codas > Word-final vowels
- Degemination
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Constraints on sequences of three or four vowels
[80%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel sequences
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory
- The Afrikaans Rhyme
[78%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- The rounded and unrounded close front vowels of Afrikaans
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The diphthongised long vowels
[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[76%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Derivation
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation
- Nominal compounds
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Univerbation
[75%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation
- Weak verbs
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[78%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- Number
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns
- Cardinal numbers
[77%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- In prenominal position
[76%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Affixation
[75%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[74%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Prefixation
[71%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[71%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Preface and acknowledgments
[76%] Dutch > Syntax > Preface and acknowledgements
- Introduction
[75%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1.3. Inflection
[75%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 1.2.3. Semantic classification of main verbs
[74%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.2. Verb classifications
- 1.3.1.2. Inf-nominalization (Infinitival nominals)
[74%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[74%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Bliuwe 'stay'
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[73%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[73%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- The Frisian verb sille 'shall' and its meaning and selectional restrictions
[73%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > The verb sille 'shall'
- Referentiality versus quantification
[72%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > Linearity and referentiality
- Mood
[75%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Root modality
[75%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Finite declarative complement clauses: lexical and semantic associations
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Attribution
[74%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
