- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
In Frisian, progressive assimilation is less general than regressive assimilation. There are two types, viz. Progressive Place Assimilation and Progressive Voice Assimilation. The former is the subject of this topic. It is found in a word like libben/lɪbən/life; alive; lively, which is realized as [lɪbm̩], with an assimilated (and syllabic) /n/.
Progressive place assimilation (PPA) implies that the coronal nasal consonant, /n/, adopts the place specification of a preceding consonant, examples of which are given in the following table:
Induced by a labial segment | Induced by a velar segment |
koppen/kop+ən/[kopm̩]cups | sokken/sɔk+ən/[sɔkŋ̩]socks |
lampen/lampə+ən/[lampm̩]lamps; bulbs | fisken/fɪsk+ən/[fɪskŋ̩]fishes |
gaspen/gɔsp+ən/[ɡɔspm̩]buckles | lekken/lɛkən/[lɛkŋ̩]cloth, sheet |
wapen/va:pən/[va:pm̩]weapon | ringen/rɪŋ+ən/[rɪŋŋ̩]rings |
libben/lɪbən/[lɪbm̩]life; alive; lively | sangen/saŋən/[saŋŋ̩]purple |
lammen/la:m+ən/[lamm̩]lambs | |
immen/ɪmən/[ɪmm̩]someone, somebody |
There is one moving force behind both progressive and regressive place assimilation, viz. that /n/ must have the same place specification as the consonant it is adjacent to.
Be that as it may, there are considerable differences between the two kinds of place assimilation. In the first place, due to the fact that it can only occur in word-final position, the velar nasal /ŋ/ is one of the triggering consonants in progressive assimilation − see, for instance, ringen/rɪŋ+ən/[rɪŋŋ̩]rings and sangen/saŋən/[saŋŋ̩]purple in the right-hand column of the above table − where as it has no role to play in regressive assimilation.
In the second place, regressive and progressive place assimilation differ in the kind of /n/ they target: the former plain [n], the latter syllabic [n̩].
In fact, if the structural conditions on regressive place assimilation are met, it still does not apply if /n/ is syllabic (one of the 'ínalterability effects' mentioned in the phonological behaviour of syllabic sonorant consonants).
There are all kinds of indications that a syllabic sonorant consonant derives from the sequence schwa + sonorant consonant (see distributional evidence that syllabic consonants derive from /ə/ + consonant). In underlying representation therefore the preceding consonant and /n/ are separated by schwa (see the phonological representations in the table above). It is as the result of the deletion of schwa that /n/ and the consonant which precedes it become adjacent. Now, /n/ must have the same place specification as the consonant which it is adjacent to, which can only be achieved here by means of progressive assimilation. The resulting word-final consonant sequence violates the Sonority Sequencing Constraint (see onset: complex onsets). This violation is repaired by the projection of a syllable on top of /n/ or, put differently, by /n/ becoming syllabic [n̩].
In the third place, regressive place assimilation of /n/ is not triggered by a fricative − in fact, the latter enforces nasalization of the vowel preceding /n/ (see vowel nasalization). But a fricative does induce the kind of progressive place assimilation discussed here. As to this, however, there is a difference between the northern and the southern parts of the Frisian language area.
In the northern parts, syllabic [n̩] occurs after all coronal consonants, including the fricatives /s/ and /z/, as exemplified in (1):
Examples of syllabic /n/ after coronal consonants | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
tassen | /tɔs+ən/ | [tɔsn̩] | bags | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huzen | /hyz+ən/ | [hyzn̩] | houses | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
lieten | /liət+ən/ | [liətn̩] | songs | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
lûden | /lu:d+ən/ | [lu:dn̩] | sounds | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
hûnen | /hun+ən/ | [hunn̩] | dogs |
The non-coronal fricatives do not trigger assimilation, as the forms in (2) make clear:
Examples of the impossibility of syllabic /n/ after non-coronal fricatives | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) paffen | /paf+ən/ | [*pafn̩] | [*paf{ɱ/m̩}] | [pafən] | puff (gerund) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) draven | /dra:v+ən/ | [*dra:vn̩] | [*dra:v{ɱ/m̩}] | [dra:vən] | run (gerund) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) kichen | /kɪx+ən/ | [*kɪxn̩] | [*kɪxŋ] | [kɪxən] | cough (gerund) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) dragen | /dra:ɣ+ən/ | [*dra:ɣn̩] | [*dra:ɣŋ] | [dra:ɣən] | carry (gerund) |
Take (te) draven/dra:v+ən/run (gerund). The realization [dra:vn] ‒ with plain [n] ‒ is out, because with respect to its place specification /n/ must be in harmony with its consonantal surroundings, which is not the case here. This demand on /n/ can be satisfied by progressive assimilation, resulting in the realization [*dra:v{ɱ/m̩}], with a syllabic labio-dental or bilabial nasal. In the northern parts of the language area, however, fricatives do no trigger this kind of assimilation. The upshot of this is that schwa must not be deleted, so that the fricative and /n/ end up as non-adjacent (which is also the case with the underlying representations of these forms).
Fricatives do not trigger assimilation in the northern parts of the language area, nor do they do this in the forms in (1) above. That a syllabic [n̩] is fine here is due to the fact that /n/ is in harmony with the preceding coronal consonant from the outset.
In the southern parts of the language area, there is assimilation of /n/ after all fricatives, see (3):
Examples of syllabic assimilated /n/ after fricatives | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
tassen | /tɔs+ən/ | [tɔsn̩] | bags | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
huzen | /hyz+ən/ | [hyzn̩] | houses | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) paffen | /paf+ən/ | [pafɱ] | [pafm̩] | puff (gerund) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) draven | /dra:v+ən/ | [dra:vɱ] | [dra:vm̩] | run (gerund) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) kichen | /kɪx+ən/ | [kɪxŋ] | cough (gerund) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(te) dragen | /dra:ɣ+ən/ | [dra:ɡŋ] | carry (gerund) |
The final form ‒ (te) dragen/dra:ɣ+ən/[dra:ɡŋ]carry (gerund) ‒ deserves some comment. It contains the velar plosive [ɡ], which derives from the underlying fricative /ɣ/. It need not be assumed that /ɣ/ only turns into [ɡ] in the context of a syllabic /n/. In the southern parts, /ɣ/ is not allowed in intervocalic position, as shown by words like toga[to:ɡa]gown and lego[le:ɡo:]lego, which are pronounced with [ɣ] in the northern parts. So, a form like (te) dragen/dra:ɣ+ən/ turns into [dra:ɡən], which shows up as [dra:ɡŋ].
A syllable headed by a (sonorant) consonant must have an onset (see the onset condition). In forms like ringen/rɪŋ+ən/[rɪŋŋ̩]rings and sangen/saŋən/[saŋŋ̩]purple, therefore, the left-hand velar nasal [ŋ] occupies both the coda position of the left-hand and the onset position of the right-hand syllable. It is only through this link with the coda that [ŋ] can occur in the onset. In word-initial position it is out (see the dorsal nasal /ŋ/).
- Dutch
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- Intonation
[84%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Phonotactics at the word level
[82%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
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[82%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
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[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
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[81%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- The phonological behaviour of syllabic sonorant consonants
[89%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Syllabic sonorants
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[87%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
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[86%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
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[86%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
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[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Schwa deletion
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[84%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
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[83%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
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[82%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[82%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
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[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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- Case - the partitive construction
[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[81%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
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[80%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
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[86%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
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[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
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[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
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[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
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[84%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
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[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[75%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[73%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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[72%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
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- 3.1.3. Modification by a complex intensifying phrase
[86%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification > 3.1. Modification of scalar adjectives
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[86%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
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[86%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification > 3.1. Spatial adpositional phrases
- 6.5. Clausal subjects
[86%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
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[86%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
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[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
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[84%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
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[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
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[81%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
