- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
There are two instances of Progressive Voice Assimilation, viz. in the formation of the past tense of the weak verbs of the first conjugation class and in the context of a closed class of function words, all of which begin with the voiced coronal plosive /d/. The former type is the subject of this topic. It shows up in, for example, the past tense of the verbs paff(e)/paf/to puff and raz(e)/ra:z/to rage, to rave, which are pafte[paftə]puffed and raasde[ra:zdə]raged, raved, respectively.
The past tense of the weak verbs of the first conjugation class is formed by attaching one of the suffixes -de/-də/ or -te/-tə/ to the stem (see paradigm of class I). The choice between the two suffixes depends on the (underlying) voice specification of the stem-final segment. If the latter is voiced, the suffix -de is selected, if it is voiceless, -te is. See the examples in (1):
Examples of the choice of the past tense suffix | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | With verb stems ending in a voiceless obstruent | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
passe | /pɔs+ə/ | to fit | ~ | paste | /pɔs+tə/ | fitted | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
paffe | /paf+ə/ | to puff | ~ | pafte | /paf+tə/ | puffed | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
bakke | /bak+ə/ | to bake | ~ | bakte | /bak+tə/ | baked | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | With verb stems ending in a voiced segment | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
raze | /ra:z+ə/ | to rage, to rave | ~ | raasde | /ra:z+də/ | raged, raved | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
drave | /dra:v+ə/ | to run | ~ | draafde | /dra:v+də/ | ran | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
sûge | /su:ɣ+ə/ | to suck | ~ | sûgde | /su:ɣ+də/ | sucked | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
fiele | /fiəl+ə/ | to feel | ~ | fielde | /fiəl+də/ | felt | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
skowe | /sko:+ə/ | to slide, to push | ~ | skode | /sko:+də/ | slid, pushed |
The feature [voice] is distinctive within obstruents, whereas sonorant consonants are redundantly [+voice]. Since it is only obstruents that can be specified as [-voice], the suffix -te is only attached after stems ending in an obstruent. Obstruent sequences must agree in voicing, hence they consist of either voiced or voiceless segments (see onset: sequences of two obstruents and word-final sequences of two obstruents), with which the distribution of the two past tense suffixes is in line.
The suffix -te thus only occurs after stems ending in /p/, /f/, /s/,/t/, /k/ and /x/ (ch). Since the orthographic representatives of these sounds all occur in 't kofschipthe koff or in 't fokschaapthe breeding sheep, these words are used as a memory aid for choosing the right suffix in the conjugation of weak verbs in teaching Dutch, which has a comparable conjugation system.
The distribution of /-də/ and /-tə/ can be accounted for by means of the distributional statement in (2):
Past tense formation (distributional) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. | choose | /-tə/ | after a stem ending in a voiceless segment | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. | choose | /-də/ | after all other stems |
As is clear, the above statement considers the context of /-tə/ as the special case and that of /-də/ as the 'elsewhere case'. This approach − with the two independent underlying suffixes /-də/ and /-tə/ − obviates the necessity to invoke progressive voice assimilation in deriving the surface forms of the past tense of verbs of the first weak conjugation class.
However, it meets with several objections. In the first place, the suffixes /-də/ and /-tə/ have a complementary distribution. This is usually taken to be indicative of the fact that one suffix is the basic one, from which the other one is a variant. If this line of reasoning is pursued, one cannot but consider /-də/ as the underlying representation. First, it has a wider scope than /-tə/. Second, it also follows verb stems ending in a vowel. If /-tə/ were the underlying suffix, the stem-final vowel would have to induce the change of suffix-initial /t/ to [d]. In Regressive Voice Assimilation, only voiced plosives can enforce the voicing of preceding plosives (see regressive voice assimilation: type 1 and regressive voice assimilation: type 2). Vowels are the least consonant-like kind of segments, so it is highly unlikely for them to have this voicing capacity with respect to following plosives in Progressive Voice Assimilation.
In the second place, an approach with both underlying /-də/ and /-tə/ leaves out of account a) that both suffixes are almost identical and b) that the difference in their distribution is not arbitrary from a phonological point of view. The latter can be the case within a distributional approach like the one in (2), for there is no principled phonological reason why the suffix /-tə/ could not follow a stem ending in a voiced non-obstruent (a vowel, a glide, or a sonorant consonant). Therefore, an analysis with the underlying suffix /-də/ is called for.
Combining a verb stem ending in a voiceless obstruent and /-də/, as in /bak+də/baked and /paf+də/puffed, leads to a voicing conflict ‒ /bakdə/ and /pafdə/ ‒, which is resolved by the devoicing of suffixal /d/: [baktə] and [paftə].
The past tense suffix might also be assumed to have the underlying representation /-Də/, where /D/ denotes a coronal plosive unspecified for the featurevoice. The voice specification of the stem-final segment then spreads to suffix-initial /D/, so that the latter ends up as either [d] or [t]. Within this approach, there is no assimilation proper: the voice specification of /D/ is not changed, underspecified /D/ merely receives one.
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[88%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[86%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Voice assimilation
[86%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- Stem allomorphy
[85%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Phonotactics at the word level
[85%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[92%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Phonological evidence for cliticization
[89%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Orthography
[89%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- /d/-insertion in the sequences /nər/, /lər/, and /rər/
[88%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Is the complex segment /ts/ an affricate?
[87%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Sequences involving s & plosives
- Nasalization
[86%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[86%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Rhotacism
[85%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- d-deletion
[83%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- r-deletion
[83%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[87%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Verbal inflection
[86%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- -achtig
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Adjectives > Adjectival suffixes
- -ing
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Case - the partitive construction
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Weak verbs
[92%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- Strong and other irregular verbs
[91%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- General categories
[89%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Verbs
- -DIM (diminutive)
[89%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- In prenominal position
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Affixation
[81%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Prefixation
[81%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[81%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[79%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[77%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 1.3.1.1. The semantics of spatial adpositions
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases > 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 6.3. Supplementive use of the adjective
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 1.3. Inflection
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification
- 4.1. Adpositional phrases used as arguments
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 2.2.3.1. Agentive er-nominalizations
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.3. Deverbal nouns
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[85%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
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[85%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
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[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
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[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
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[83%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > The verb sille 'shall' > Participio-pro-Infinitivo
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[87%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
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[86%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
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[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
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[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Reported speech in Afrikaans
- Epistemic modality
[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
