- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
This section deals with further factors in vowel reduction. These are 1) reduction in seemingly simplex words and 2) reduction as a variable process.
Schwa is not allowed as the only vowel of a (content) word, so a vowel cannot undergo reduction if it is the only vowel of such a word. A canonical Frisian word has one full vowel, which may be supplemented by schwa (so it ends up as either mono- or disyllabic). In principle then vowel reduction can only manifest itself in loan words, which can have more than one (unstressed) full vowel.
There are, however, some exceptions to the above. First, compounds (in a broad sense) consist of two or more independent words, so vowel reduction is impossible. A compound, however, can develop meanings so remote from the original, compositional meaning that it comes to function as a simplex word. The implication of this is that it is exposed to phonological processes typical for words, one of them being vowel reduction. Examples of the latter in compounds with a no longer transparant meaning are given in (1):
Examples of vowel reduction in compounds with a no longer transparant meaning and stress on their final part | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ier'appel | [jərapl̩] | potatoe (lit. earth#apple) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
mole-'ier | [məliər] | outlet ditch of a drainage mill (lit. mill#vein) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Wâlds'ein | [vəzajn] | name of a village (lit. wood's end) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Swarteweis'ein | [swatəvəzajn] | name of a crossroads (lit. black way's end) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
koos'iten | [kəzitn̩] | the amount of hay a cow eats during the time it is stabled (in the winter) (lit. cow's food) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
foar'naam | [fəna:m] | distinguished; important (lit. first taken) |
Secondly, phrases can develop into words − in which case they tend to be written as one word − and can then undergo vowel reduction; examples are given in (2):
Examples of vowel reduction in phrases which have developed into words | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
fansels | (< | fan 'sels | of itself | ) | [fəsɛls] | obviously, of course | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
foaral | (< | foar 'al | before all | ) | [fərɔl] | particularly, chiefly | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
moarnier | (< | moarn 'ier | tomorrow early | ) | [məniər] | tomorrow morning |
Thirdly, in fixed collocations consisting of two elements conjoined by en/ɛn/and, the full vowel /ɛ/ of the conjunction can reduce, of which (3) gives some examples:
Examples of vowel reduction in the conjunction en /ɛn/ 'and' in fixed collocations | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
út en troch | [ytn̩trox] | every once in a while (lit. out and through) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
op en del | [opm̩dɛl] | up and down | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
wiet en droech | [viətn̩drux] | food and drink | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
heit en mem | [hajtn̩mɛm] | mum and dad, pop and mom |
The above collocations are realized with a syllabic sonorant consonant, which derives from the sequence schwa + sonorant consonant (see syllabic sonorant consonants).
Vowel reduction is not an obligatory process, that is, not every short vowel in unstressed position is affected by it. This may be a word-specific matter. The word fakânsjeholiday(s), for instance, is realized as [fə'kɔ̃:sjə] − [fa'kɔ̃:sjə] sounds weird −, whereas kabaalracket can be pronounced as both [ka'ba:l] and [kə'ba:l]. There are also contexts in which vowel reduction (virtually) does not occur, as in word-initial and word-final position (see vowel reduction in word-final position). In other contexts, it can and cannot occur, which is dependent on the concerted influence of several factors. These are mentioned in the list below. However, an explicit account of their relative contribution to the occurrence or non-occurrence of vowel reduction cannot be given, since this will have to be examined in more detail.
- There is a rhythmic tendency in the language to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables, so clashes and lapses are avoided. One therefore expects vowel reduction not to occur in case it results in a lapse.
- More frequently used words are expected to show more vowel reduction than less frequently used ones.
- Vowel reduction is expected to occur more in casual than in formal speech (details about the influence of speech style on vowel reduction in Dutch can be found in The influence of speech style on vowel reduction).
- Vowel reduction is expected to occur more in speech at a higher than in speech at a lower speech rate.
- Vowel reduction is expected to occur less at morpheme boundaries than inside morphemes.
- Not all vowels are equally prone to reduce. As to Dutch, for instance, the following hierarchy is assumed (see Booij (1995:134)):
- the vowels which reduce most easily are the ones closest to schwa: /e/ and /ɛ/.
- the vowel /a/ also reduces quite easily.
- rounded vowels reduce less easily than unrounded ones.
- the closed vowels reduce least easily.
- diphthongs never reduce.
- Booij, Geert1995The phonology of DutchOxfordOxford University Press
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- The unrounded high-mid front-central vowel /ɪ/
[75%] Dutch > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowel inventory
- The influence of syllable structure and position in the word on vowel reduction
[73%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Phonological processes in casual speech
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonological processes
- The spelling of vowels
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Spelling
- Pansyllabic constraints
[71%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics > Syllable level
- Schwa
[79%] Frisian > Phonology > Segment inventory > Vowels
- Repairing the outcome of vowel reduction
[78%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel reduction introduction
- Vowel reduction in word-final position
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel reduction introduction
- Vowel reduction
[77%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- /r/-deletion in compounds
[76%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > /r/-deletion
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- d-deletion
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
- Rhotacism
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
[71%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Vowel derounding
[70%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Nominal suffixation: diminutives
[69%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Affixoids
[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- Cardinal numerals
[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Numerals
- Adjectival inflection
[68%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection
- Interrogative pronouns
[71%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Pronouns
- Quantifiers
[71%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- Word formation
[71%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation
- Cardinal numbers
[71%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Numerals
- In prenominal position
[70%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- Non-native affixes
[66%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[66%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[65%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Nominalisation – Person names
[64%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Conversion
[64%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 5.1.4.1. Complex verbal predicates
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns > 5.1. Articles > 5.1.4. Deviant semantics
- 6.2.3. Existential quantifiers
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 6 Numerals and quantifiers > 6.2. Quantifiers
- 7.2.4. Distribution of heel and its alternants as independent constituents
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 7 Pre-determiners > 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
[69%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1.5. Intransitive adpositions and verbal particles
[68%] Dutch > Syntax > Adpositions and adpositional phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases > 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- Referentiality versus quantification
[69%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > Linearity and referentiality
- The Frisian verb sille 'shall' and its meaning and selectional restrictions
[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis > The verb sille 'shall'
- The complementiser dat 'that' as a marker of syntactic coordination
[66%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Embedded Verb Second > Verb-second in embedded clauses > UCV2s
- No NP-complements
[64%] Frisian > Syntax > Adposition Phrases > Complementation > Postpositions + simple complements > No complements to postpositions
- Selecting a bare infinitive
[64%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Bliuwe 'stay'
- Constructions with APs
[71%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Characteristics and classification
- Characteristics and classification
[70%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Root modality
[69%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
- Mood
[68%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Modal chains
[68%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification > Modality
