- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Suffixation is the addition of a bound morpheme at the right edge of a base word. In Frisian, suffixes always determine the syntactic category of the complex word as a whole, and in the case of the formation of nouns, they also determine the gender of the noun. The diminutive suffix -DIM, for example, always creates neuter nouns, independent from the input category.
Suffixes also determine the stress of the formation. Those with a nucleus consisting of a schwa do not bear inherent stress by definition, and therefore leave the main stress on the base. This is even more pregnant in the case of suffixes that are built up with one or two consonantal suffixes. Other suffixes may take over the main stress of the output form, however. An example is -inne, as in boerfarmer > boeRINnefarmer's wife. We see this behaviour with non-native suffixes in particular.
Another feature relevant for phonology is the distinction between cohering and non-cohering suffixes. The distinction pertains to the interface between morphology and phonology: cohering affixes form a prosodic word with their stem, while non-cohering affixes are prosodic words of their own. Thus, the morphological boundary of a cohering affix does not necessarily coincide with a prosodic boundary. All non-native suffixes and most native suffixes are cohering. A number of native suffixes, however, is non-cohering. These are the following suffixes, which all derive historically from words: -eftich, -ber, -dom, -heid, -ling, -leas, -skip, -sum . For the same historical reason, suffixoids are always non-cohering.
Usually, formations derived by suffixation can be the input to further suffixation. This is not the case with closing suffixes. An example is the diminutive suffix -DIM. The possibilities for further word formation are treated in the section "morphological potention" in the topics on the individual suffixes.
The treatment of suffixes has concentrated here on the native stock. Therefore, not all suffixes of non-Germanic origin have been dealt with, but the main ones have been given attention, among them the ones that, mostly exceptionally, may also take native bases. For example, the suffix -emint, from French -ement, may be attached to native words as in preuvelemintmurmuring (from the verb preuveljeto murmur) or kakemintlower and upper jaw (from the noun kaakjaw). Anyhow, it is sometimes hard to establish in how far non-native suffixes have an independent role in the word formation of Frisian. They are often not productive, and in many cases one may assume that the non-native words have been loaned in their entirety, usually via the majority language Dutch.
Suffixation is a very common means to derive nouns and adjectives, and, to a somewhat lesser extent, also verbs. In addition, a number of suffixes can derive adverbs. Compared to these main categories, the derivation of numerals, interjections and names is only marginal.
As a final remark: suffixes are also active in the formation of synthetic compounds. These are not treated here under the heading "suffixation", but rather under "composition".
The treatment of suffixes is structured in three levels. At the highest level, a division is made according to the lexical category that is formed. The terms nominal suffixes, verbal suffixes, etc., denote those suffixes that form nouns, verbs, etc.
The middle level shows a division in the choice of the base. Here one encounters titles like noun as base, verb as base, adjective as base, numeral as base, as are for example the four possibilities of verbal suffixes. Establishing this level has the immediate advantage that it offers a quick answer to the question which suffixes can be added to a certain base.
Finally, the lowest level consists of topics that describe the individual suffixes that can be attached to a certain base, in order to derive the relevant lexical category.
It should be noted that some suffixes, usually the very productive ones, may attach to more than one type of base. The adjectival suffix -lik, for instance, may be added nouns, verbs, adjectives, a few prepositions, and in one case even to a numeral. To avoid an inefficient repetition of similar information, it is chosen to concentrate the description in one topic, usually that with the most productive base. In the case of -lik, this is a verbal base. The other possible base categories are treated in such a main topic as well, usually in a separate section. Nevertheless, the suffix is also recorded on the relevant place in the structure with respect to the other possible bases. Hence, under "noun as base" or "adjective as base" we find a topic -lik as well. In this case, however, only a short description is offered in the part "Quick info". For more information, a reference to the main topic is made in the "Read more" part. All this is reminiscent, of course, to the common practice that is found in for instance dictionaries.
Words of the following lexical categories can be derived by suffixation:
- Nouns by nominal suffixes
- Verbs by verbal suffixes
- Adjectives by adjectival suffixes
- Adverbs by adverbial suffixes
- Numerals by numeral suffixes
- Interjections by interjectional suffixes
- Names by onomastic suffixes
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Intonation
[85%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- Stem allomorphy
[85%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
- Phonotactics at the word level
[84%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Stress-neutral suffixes
[84%] Dutch > Phonology > Word stress > Stress in complex words
- Acoustic correlates of stress
[84%] Dutch > Phonology > Accent & intonation
- The phonological domain of Final Devoicing
[88%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
- Orthography
[87%] Frisian > Phonology > Orthography of Frisian
- Phonological evidence for cliticization
[86%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Cliticization
[86%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
- Progressive Voice Assimilation: the past tense of the weak verbs of the first conjugation class
[85%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Assimilation
- The phonotactics of Afrikaans
[83%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
- Nasalization
[83%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
- Rhotacism
[82%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes
- Homorganic glide insertion
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
[81%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Word stress
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
[87%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Compounding
- -ing
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- Case - the partitive construction
[85%] Dutch > Morphology > Inflection > Nouns > Case
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
- -er (nominal)
[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
- -DIM (diminutive)
[91%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Noun as base
- -heid, -ens and -ichheid
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Nominal suffixes > Adjective as base
- Derivation
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation
- In prenominal position
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
- -e
[88%] Frisian > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Suffixation > Onomastic suffixes > Numeral as base
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
[84%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Affixation
[82%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
- Prefixation
[82%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Non-native affixes
[82%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Inputs and input restrictions
[82%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation > Affixation
- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- 2.2.3.1. Agentive er-nominalizations
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements > 2.2.3. Deverbal nouns
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations > 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
[88%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification > 3.3. Postmodification
- 2.2.1. Tests for distinguishing PP-complements from PP-adjuncts
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 1.3.1.5. Er-nominalization
[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns > 1.3.1. Deverbal nouns
- The adverb of manner & degree sa 'so' and negation
[84%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Verbs and Verb Phrases in Frisian
[83%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Combining with to-infinitives
[83%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
- Restriction of the B-construction to modals
[83%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Expression of irrealis
- The adverb of degree followed by an adjective and negation
[82%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
- Mood
[87%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Characterization and classification
- Finite declarative complement clauses: construction forms
[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
- Attribution
[85%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Finite interrogative complement clauses: syntactic distribution
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite interrogative complement clauses
- Equative
[83%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Adjective Phrases > Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
