- Dutch
- Frisian
- Afrikaans
- Dutch
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological processes
- Phonology-morphology interface
- Word stress
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Monomorphemic words
- Diachronic aspects
- Generalizations on stress placement
- Default penultimate stress
- Lexical stress
- The closed penult restriction
- Final closed syllables
- The diphthong restriction
- Superheavy syllables (SHS)
- The three-syllable window
- Segmental restrictions
- Phonetic correlates
- Stress shifts in loanwords
- Quantity-sensitivity
- Secondary stress
- Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- Stress in complex words
- Primary stress in simplex words
- Accent & intonation
- Clitics
- Spelling
- Morphology
- Word formation
- Compounding
- Nominal compounds
- Verbal compounds
- Adjectival compounds
- Affixoids
- Coordinative compounds
- Synthetic compounds
- Reduplicative compounds
- Phrase-based compounds
- Elative compounds
- Exocentric compounds
- Linking elements
- Separable complex verbs (SCVs)
- Gapping of complex words
- Particle verbs
- Copulative compounds
- Derivation
- Numerals
- Derivation: inputs and input restrictions
- The meaning of affixes
- Non-native morphology
- Cohering and non-cohering affixes
- Prefixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixation: person nouns
- Conversion
- Pseudo-participles
- Bound forms
- Nouns
- Nominal prefixes
- Nominal suffixes
- -aal and -eel
- -aar
- -aard
- -aat
- -air
- -aris
- -ast
- Diminutives
- -dom
- -een
- -ees
- -el (nominal)
- -elaar
- -enis
- -er (nominal)
- -erd
- -erik
- -es
- -eur
- -euse
- ge...te
- -heid
- -iaan, -aan
- -ief
- -iek
- -ier
- -ier (French)
- -ière
- -iet
- -igheid
- -ij and allomorphs
- -ijn
- -in
- -ing
- -isme
- -ist
- -iteit
- -ling
- -oir
- -oot
- -rice
- -schap
- -schap (de)
- -schap (het)
- -sel
- -st
- -ster
- -t
- -tal
- -te
- -voud
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Univerbation
- Neo-classical word formation
- Construction-dependent morphology
- Morphological productivity
- Compounding
- Inflection
- Inflection and derivation
- Allomorphy
- The interface between phonology and morphology
- Word formation
- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Phonology
- Frisian
- Introduction to Frisian
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Phonotactics
- Phonological Processes
- Assimilation
- Vowel nasalization
- Syllabic sonorants
- Final devoicing
- Fake geminates
- Vowel hiatus resolution
- Vowel reduction introduction
- Schwa deletion
- Schwa insertion
- /r/-deletion
- d-insertion
- {s/z}-insertion
- t-deletion
- Intrusive stop formation
- Breaking
- Vowel shortening
- h-deletion
- Replacement of the glide w
- Word stress
- Clitics
- Allomorphy
- Orthography of Frisian
- Morphology
- Inflection
- Word formation
- Derivation
- Prefixation
- Infixation
- Suffixation
- Nominal suffixes
- Verbal suffixes
- Adjectival suffixes
- Adverbial suffixes
- Numeral suffixes
- Interjectional suffixes
- Onomastic suffixes
- Conversion
- Derivation
- Syntax
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Unergative and unaccusative subjects
- Evidentiality
- To-infinitival clauses
- Predication and noun incorporation
- Ellipsis
- Imperativus-pro-Infinitivo
- Expression of irrealis
- Embedded Verb Second
- Agreement
- Negation
- Nouns & Noun Phrases
- Classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Partitive noun constructions
- Referential partitive constructions
- Partitive measure nouns
- Numeral partitive constructions
- Partitive question constructions
- Nominalised quantifiers
- Kind partitives
- Partitive predication with prepositions
- Bare nominal attributions
- Articles and names
- Pronouns
- Quantifiers and (pre)determiners
- Interrogative pronouns
- R-pronouns
- Syntactic uses
- Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by degree
- Comparative
- Superlative
- Equative
- Attribution
- Agreement
- Attributive adjectives vs. prenominal elements
- Complex adjectives
- Noun ellipsis
- Co-occurring adjectives
- Predication
- Partitive adjective constructions
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives
- Adposition Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification
- Intransitive adpositions
- Predication
- Preposition stranding
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- Afrikaans
- Phonology
- Segment inventory
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- The rounded and unrounded high front vowels /i/ and /y/
- The diphthongised long vowels /e/, /ø/ and /o/
- The unrounded mid-front vowel /ɛ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /ɑ/
- The unrounded low-central vowel /a/
- The rounded mid-high back vowel /ɔ/
- The rounded high back vowel /u/
- The unrounded and rounded central vowels /ə/ and /œ/
- The diphthongs /əi/, /œy/ and /œu/
- Overview of Afrikaans Consonants
- The bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/
- The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/
- The velar plosives /k/ and /g/
- The bilabial nasal /m/
- The alveolar nasal /n/
- The velar nasal /ŋ/
- The trill /r/
- The lateral liquid /l/
- The labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/
- The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
- The velar fricative /x/
- The approximants /ɦ/, /j/ and /ʋ/
- Overview of Afrikaans vowels
- Word stress
- The phonetic properties of stress
- Primary stress on monomorphemic words in Afrikaans
- Background to primary stress in monomorphemes in Afrikaans
- Overview of the Main Stress Rule of Afrikaans
- The short vowels of Afrikaans
- Long vowels in monomorphemes
- Primary stress on diphthongs in monomorphemes
- Exceptions
- Stress shifts in place names
- Stress shift towards word-final position
- Stress pattern of reduplications
- Phonological Processes
- Phonotactics
- Segment inventory
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Introduction to Noun Phrases
- Introduction to Adjective Phrases
- Characteristics and classification
- Complementation
- Modification and degree quantification
- Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative degree
- Attribution
- Predication
- The partitive adjective construction
- Adverbial use
- Participles and infinitives as adjectives
- Introduction to Verb Phrases
- Phonology
Frisian adjectives may be converted into nouns on a moderate scale. From the adjective djipdeep, for example, one may derive the noun djip, which is a deep waterway. The derived nouns predominantly display the property inherent to the adjectival source. The pattern can be considered productive in the realm of colour terms and languages. Examples are readred > it readthe red colour, or SweedskSwedish > it Sweedskthe Swedish language. The use of other converted nouns is often restricted to certain fixed patterns or expressions. Most derived nouns have neuter gender, but those referring to persons are common.
Conversion of an adjective into a noun usually results in a property meaning: the output noun typically refers to something that has the property denoted by the adjective. The converted nouns differ with respect to gender. If it refers to a thing, the converted noun is neuter, and therefore takes the definite article itthe:
Adjectival Base | Converted Noun |
ljochtnot dark, bright | it ljochtlight |
tsjusternot light, not bright | it tsjusterdark |
heechhigh | it heechhigh place |
wiidspacious | it wiidwidth |
fetmuch fat, not skinny | it fetfat |
smelnarrow | it smelsmall pieces of meat on both sides of the spine of a slaughtered pig |
djipdeep | it djipdeep water |
griengreen | it grienthe colour green |
readred | it readthe colour red |
blynblind | it blynblindage |
sâltsalty | it sâlt(common) salt |
soersour | it soerpickles |
rjochtstraight | it rjochtjustice |
tsjokthick | it tsjokgrounds |
fjouwerkantsquare formed | it fjouwerkantsquare |
wietwet | it wietthe wet |
gehielwhole | it gehielthe whole |
orizjineeloriginal | it orizjineelthe original |
The names of languages can be added to this stock. So, from the adjective Fryskfrom Friesland can be derived it FryskFrisian, and we have the language it SineeskChinese from the adjective Sineeskfrom China. This conversion of geographical adjectives to the names of languages can be considered productive, as is the conversion in the realm of colour terms. In other areas, the productivity of the pattern is strongly restricted. Note that the geographical adjectives themselves are derived from geographical names by suffixation.
Conversion to nouns denoting an animal is extremely rare. There are only jongyoung > it jongyoung animal and wyldwild > it wyldgame. Both formations have neuter gender, but they differ in that it jong is a count noun, where it wyld is a mass noun.
Conversion to nouns referring to persons does not occur frequently either. In this case, the gender of the converted noun is common, hence it takes the definite article dethe. Examples are listed below:
Adjectival base | Converted noun |
ferwoestvery angry | de ferwoestwild person |
gekcrazy | de geklunatic |
komykcomic | de komykcomedian |
autochtoanautochthonous | de autochtoannative |
krimineelcriminal | de krimineelcriminal |
liberaalliberal | de liberaalliberal |
As can be seen from these cases, non-native adjectives are relatively open for conversion to a personal noun.
One aspect that may point to restricted productivity is the property that many formations preferably occur in a collocation, for instance in an Adposition Phrase (PP) with a fixed preposition. Examples are iepenbierpublic > yn it iepenbierin the publicpublicly, or its counterpart geheimsecret > yn it geheimin the secretsecretly. We see the same preposition in the kind of clothing: yn it wytin the white(dressed) in white (from wytwhite) or yn it langin the longin a long dress (from langlong).
Other examples of collocations show an almost obligatory additional specification, embodied in a PP, like it weak (fan 't liif)the soft (of the body)the soft tissues (of the body), it giel (fan 't aai)the yellow (of the egg)the egg yolk or it toar (fan 't spek)the lean of the baconthe lean part of the bacon.
We can also find frequent mostly metaphorically used binominal expressions, like swiet en soersweet and sourthe rough and the smooth of life, ryp en grienripe and greenpeople with all kinds of qualifications; everybody, wiet en droechwet and dryfood en drinks. Such binominal expressions may also refer to persons, as in slop-en-taaisoft and toughtall person who is skinny and weak or meager-en-kweaslim and evillong and weak mischievous. The latter expressions are preferably used predicatively, in an indefinite noun phrase (NP).
In addition, some other results of A>N conversion denoting a person can likewise only occur with the indefinite article ina(n), and only if they occur in comparisons. Examples are ... as in wyld... as a wild(looking) like a wild one, prate as in âldtalk like an oldtalk like a grown-up and sûpe as in kreupelbooze like a crippleget pissed.
This topic is based on Hoekstra (1998:106).
- Hoekstra, Jarich1998Fryske wurdfoarmingLjouwertFryske Akademy
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[79%] Dutch > Phonology > Phonology-morphology interface > Allomorphy
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[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Final devoicing
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[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Phonological Processes
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[83%] Frisian > Phonology > Clitics
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[80%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Vowel related processes
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[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonotactics
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[79%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Phonological Processes > Consonant related processes > Consonant cluster simplification: Overview
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[77%] Afrikaans > Phonology > Segment inventory > Overview of Afrikaans vowels
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[84%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation
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[82%] Dutch > Morphology > Word formation > Derivation > Nouns > Nominal suffixes
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[85%] Frisian > Morphology > Inflection > Adjectives
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[76%] Afrikaans > Morphology > Word formation
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[87%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.3. Derivation of nouns
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[85%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 1 Characterization and classification > 1.2. Classification > 1.2.1. Proper nouns
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[85%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions > 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 1.3.2.1. The set-denoting property
[85%] Dutch > Syntax > Adjectives and Adjective Phrases > 1 Characteristics and classification > 1.3. A semantic classification > 1.3.2. Set-denoting adjectives
- 2.2.1. Tests for distinguishing PP-complements from PP-adjuncts
[85%] Dutch > Syntax > Nouns and Noun Phrases > 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation > 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
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[81%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Negation
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[79%] Frisian > Syntax > Verbs and Verb Phrases > Predication and noun incorporation > Copulas
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Complement clauses > Finite declarative complement clauses
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[80%] Afrikaans > Syntax > Introduction to Verb Phrases > Alternations > Alternations involving the external argument
